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Learn how to configure Rohde & Schwarz products to fit your application. Search our database by product, technology, or application to find relevant technical documents.
Search Application Notes & Cards
Learn how to configure Rohde & Schwarz products to fit your application. Search our database by product, technology, or application to find relevant technical documents.
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Coaxial connectors are a key component in RF and microwave applications. Their importance and contribution to overall system performance is sometimes overlooked. This application note focuses on coaxial connectors found in RF and microwave applications, providing general information on the available types; how to take care of connectors and connector electrical properties. This information is essential for anyone specifying and using Rohde and Schwarz test and measurement equipment and will help with the selection of the correct types of coaxial connector, handling connectors to obtain accurate and repeatable measurements, and to maximize the longevity and performance of coaxial connectors.
09-Apr-2015 | AN-No. 1MA99
Transformers are passive devices that are primarily used to convert or "transform" alternating current (AC) from one voltage level to another. One very common application of transformers is in AC to DC power supplies, in which mains voltage is stepped down before being rectified and filtered to produce DC. There are numerous other applications for transformers, such as providing electrical isolation or for impedance matching.This educational note provides a brief technical introduction to measurements made on the types of transformers used in electronics. These transformers are typically physically small, work on relatively low voltages or powers, and are used for “indoor” applications. Although many of the testing concepts described below also apply to the larger, higher-power "outdoor" transformers used for electrical power distribution, the specific tests and test procedures for these types of transformers are often specified by standards bodies such as the IEEE and may differ substantially from the types of measurements described here.Read this educational note and dive into the discussion about the six most important transformer measurements: turns ratio, mutual inductance, phase angle, primary and secondary inductance, leakage inductance, and interwinding capacitance.
28-Feb-2024
Stable operation in all circumstances is essential for power converters. Different working conditions, such as load steps, startup/shutdown sequences and input voltage variation, apply to most converter types. In addition to the standard feedback control loop, integrated pulse width modulation (PWM) controllers provide extended functions, such as line feed-forward loop control and soft-start control. These extended control functions improve regulation for specific conditions. Such complex regulation systems require smart methods to ensure proper operation of the converter in all modes. For this task, extensive expertise and the right measurement tools are essential for identifying and locating unexpected events in the system.
11-Oct-2023
This application card examines the best practices for testing video service quality over mobile networks and discusses the different types of video services and recent changes in video streaming.
18-Apr-2024
The R&S®BTC broadcast test center generates DVB-C2 signals for receiver tests with a variety of simulated interference types. The selection tests stipulated by the DVB Project require a cable TV network with full channel load. Combining the R&S®BTC broadcast test center and the R&S®CLG cable load generator makes it quick and easy to create a flexible cable TV network with full channel load and to simulate all types of realistic interference, permitting tests in accordance with DVB.
30-Jul-2013 | AN-No. 7BM88
Using VISA (Virtual Instrument Software Architecture) several interfaces allow communication between your computer and instruments. This application note describes the usage of both - R&S® VISA- NI VISA running on Microsoft Windows 10™ with the following connection types: ► USB VCP (Virtual Com Port), also called USB CDC (Communications Device Class) ► USB TMC (Test and Measurement Class)► Ethernet Raw Port Socket► Ethernet in general e.g. VXI11 or HislipAll the examples are shown using the R&S® HMC8042 unless otherwise stated. There may be some difference when integrating other devices. As example some interface types are not available on every unit.This application note does not claim to be complete. All information has been compiled with care. However, errors can’t be ruled out.
28-Oct-2021 | AN-No. 1SL374
A Test Port Adapter System is implemented for all Rohde & Schwarz equipment, which operates above 26 GHz in order to protect the RF front-end from mechanical damage. The Test Port Adapter System consists of an RF front-end interface called the Test Port Adapter Body, and the Test Port Adapter Head which is attached to the Body. The Head provides an interface to a cable or device under test. This Application Note identifies the various types of Test Port Adapters, their parameters, compatibilities and usages.
28-Apr-2015 | AN-No. 1MA100
This Application Note introduces the new interferer management option, R&S SFU-K37 and describes how this can be used to generate various types of interfering signals for testing the performance of a receiver.
09-Jan-2007 | AN-No. 7BM50
This application note describes Methods of Implementation (MOI) for precise, fast, and error-free compliance testing of USB 3.2 Legacy Cable Testing for USB Type A, Type B, and Micro family connector types. Based on 5 Gbps and 10 Gbps signaling per lane with vector network analyzers from Rohde & Schwarz.
09-Nov-2023 | AN-No. 1SL408
An FSE (or FSIQ) Spectrum Analyser equipped with the Vector Analysis option (FSE-B7) can measure a wide range of error types (EVM, Magnitude Error, Phase Error…) on continous signal. This Application Note describes how to measure these errors on a single burst between symbols.
22-Jan-2011 | AN-No. 1ES48
A large variety of measurements is performed in audio engineering in order to ensure transmission quality of analog and digital devices. An audio analyzer suitable for all these tasks will, therefore, incorporate a multitude of functions, resulting in a correspondingly large number of settings.This application note is to help test engineers using the R&S®UPP and R&S®UPV audio analyzers. It presents setting examples for all basic audio measurements to be performed immediately. For each setup, information is given on the type of measurement, the underlying standards, and on how to modify the graphic display results.
07-Jul-2014 | AN-No. 1GA64
Signal generators play a vital role in electrical test and measurement. They generate the test signals that are applied to components such as filters and amplifier, or even to entire modules, in order to ascertain and test their behavior and characteristics. The first part of this educational note presents the applications for and the most important types of signal generators. This is followed by a description of the construction and functioning of analog and vector signal generators. To permit a better understanding of the specifications found on data sheets, a closer look at the most important parameters for a signal generator is provided.Beyond the output of spectrally pure signals, a key function of RF signal generators is the generation of analog- and digitally modulated signals. The second part of this note therefore presents the fundamentals for the most significant analog and digital modulation methods.The third part of this educational note contains exercises on the topics of analog and digital modulation. All described measurements were performed using the R&S®SMBV100A vector signal generator and the R&S®FSV spectrum analyzer.
03-May-2016 | AN-No. 1MA225
This application note describes the different memory types and locations that user information can be stored in a spectrum analyzer R&S® FSEA, R&S® FSEB, R&S® FSEM, R&S® FSEK or R&S® FSIQ, as well as the different ways in which it can be erased/cleared for security reasons.
20-Sep-2004 | AN-No. 1EF54
This application note describes the different memory types and locations that user information can be stored in a spectrum analyzer R&S® FSP, R&S® FSU or R&S® FSQ, as well as the different ways in which it can be erased/cleared for security reasons.
20-Sep-2004 | AN-No. 1EF53
With the R&S®Pulse Sequencer radar simulation software, users can easily and intuitively create scenarios for simulation of angle of arrival (AoA). Together with multiple coupled R&S®SMW200A vector signal generators, this solution allows quick and thorough performance characterization of all types of direction finding equipment such as devices that use amplitude comparison, interferometric or time difference of arrival (TDOA) techniques. This document describes our test solution for testing devices that use amplitude comparison techniques.
02-Apr-2020
This application note provides a guide through the measurements for IEEE 802.11ac WLAN transmitter signals using the general purpose OFDM analysis software R&S FS-K96. Step-by-step instructions for performing the measurements are provided and the different result types available with the FSK96 Software are discussed.
22-Sep-2011 | AN-No. 1EF82
Best practices for mobile network testing for business-critical applications
Business-critical infrastructure: Industrial applications require extremely high reliability and availability, as any downtime can result in significant financial losses. Fundamental requirements: Industrial applications often require low latency and even more important a sustainable latency to ensure real-time communication and control. Measurement Techniques: As soon as the radio access network is used, innovative testing methods are needed beforehand to proactively test the network capability and to identify any potential issues. We propose a standard test procedure for the characterization of a network regarding industrial use-cases that covers a representative set of different, common types of network traffic.
13-Aug-2024 | AN-No. 8NT17
This white paper describes the basic functionality of antennas. Starting with Hertz's Antenna model followed by a short introduction to the fundamentals of wave propagation, the important general characteristics of an antenna and its associated parameters are explained. A more detailed explanation of the functionality of some selected antenna types concludes this white paper.
04-Nov-2014 | AN-No. 8GE01
Modern radio communication systems have to provide higher and higher data rates. As conventional methods like using more bandwidth or higher order modulation types are limited, new methods of using the transmission channel have to be used. Multiple antenna systems (Multiple Input, Multiple Output – MIMO) gives a significant enhancement to data rate and channel capacity. This application note gives an introduction to basic MIMO concepts and terminology and explains how MIMO is implemented in different radio communications standards.
02-Jul-2009 | AN-No. 1MA142
Distortions caused by components in the RFFE (radio frequency front end) limit the performance and throughput of communications systems. Types of distortions include:▪ AM-AM and AM-PM (complex variations of gain with amplitude)▪ Non-linear frequency response (memory effect)All RFFE components exhibit all of these distortions, only the proportions vary. In this Application Note, illustrative measurements of individual RFFE components, as well as a complete RFFE, will be made. This is followed by the documentation of a more complete analysis, including comparison against theoretical limits, of a linearized commercial SatCom BUC product.
27-Feb-2017 | AN-No. 1MA299
R&S®AdVISE is a visual inspection software to monitor different regions of interest (ROIs) in a video for visible and audible changes. It automates the process of visually monitoring equipment under test during a test sequence and therefore eliminates human inattention, ensures reproducible results and simplifies the test documentation. R&S®AdVISE offers the possibility to monitor up to 32 ROIs in one video with 12 different specialized ROI types for different kinds of events. That allows the user to apply R&S®AdVISE to all sorts of individual test setups.This application note explains how to setup R&S®AdVISE to monitor the temperature of an EUT by using an infrared camera.
14-Sep-2020 | AN-No. 1S008
DVB-T can be used for stationary, portable and – using the diversity technique – also mobile reception. Stationary reception via a Gaussian channel and a fixed Yagi antenna on the roof usually poses no problems. This is different with portable reception, for example on a park bench, if there are moving objects in the vicinity of the receiver that has been put up for optimal reception. These may be persons or any kind of vehicles that – while passing by the receiver - generate different types of reflections. With mobile reception, for example when driving on a motorway, poor receiving conditions have the most detrimental effect. Receiving conditions can be considerably improved by employing several antennas, a technique that is referred to as antenna diversity. This application note discusses the improvements that can be achieved with antenna diversity and explains how to simulate a DVB-T channel with the required characteristics by means of TV Test Transmitter R&S SFQ.
31-Jul-2003 | AN-No. 7BM06
Level or power measurement of especially modulated signals using spectrum analyzers is becoming more and more important . Whereas the first choice in terms of accuracy for power measurement of any carrier (modulated or non-modulated) is a power meter, power measurement of spurious or in the adjacent channel of a transmission system needs a selective power meter with high dynamic range. A power meter, however, is a non-selective device with limited dynamic range and is not appropriate for these types of measurements. The first choice is a spectrum analyzer because of its versatile use as a general-purpose instrument. Compared to a power meter its power measurement accuracy is worse. In general this can be overcome by substitution methods using a power meter, an attenuator and a signal generator. But substitution is time-consuming and requires more investment in test equipment than a single instrument. Therefore it is most important to have a spectrum analyzer like the FSE, which can fulfill at least most of the requirements in terms of measurement accuracy.
13-Jan-1998 | AN-No. 1EF36
Receiver diversity improves reception quality by using multiple antennas with a preferably low correlation factor between each other. This results in a more robust handling of multipath signals, since a deep fade will then not affect all received signals at the same time. However, the compact dimensions of handheld devices can introduce unwanted correlation due to their dense antenna spacing. In this case, the popular diversity test setup consisting of several independent transmitters will no longer serve the needs of a realistic simulation, since correlation effects have to be taken into account here. A clever solution is to operate the R&S®SFU in split-fading mode in combination with a second transmitter. This can be another R&S®SFU, the R&S®SFE, the R&S®SFE100 or the R&S®SMU200A. In this way, two diversity signals of adjustable correlation for any common broadcast standard are coded in realtime, while their individual multipath profile is precisely specified by the extensive features of the R&S®SFU fader module.
19-Oct-2012 | AN-No. 7BM76
All types of information transmission, including the 'one-way' transmission used in broadcasting, involve feeding a radio frequency (RF) signal to an antenna. This is the essence of the most basic type of transmitter used to emit electromagnetic waves. In the real world, however, a transmitter used for broadcast applications, for example, is much more complex in terms of its functions and design. The different transmitter components must be carefully coordinated. There are many quality parameters that are critical in ensuring that a proper output signal is delivered. Rohde & Schwarz designed the R&S® ETL TV analyzer especially for broadcasting applications. The analyzer allows the measurement of the quality parameters that are relevant in analog and digital broadcasting. This Application Note describes the typical quality measurements performed during compliance testing of TV transmitters. The approach discussed here is based on the example of Rohde & Schwarz terrestrial transmitters for analog TV and DVB-T/H.
19-Sep-2007 | AN-No. 7BM67
Energy efficiency of RF Frontends (RFFE), especially transmitters, continues to gain greater prominence.Meeting the efficiency challenge is increasingly difficult at higher operating frequencies and bandwidths, such as those proposed for 5G.There is a group of transmitter RFFE architectures whose signal output is constructed from two, or more, efficiently generated components. This signal construction in effect, means that such architectures use predictive, post-correction linearization. Their predictive nature enables distortion to be completely eliminated.The capabilities of multi-channel signal synthesis setups with R&S®SMW200A, in combination with the R&S®FSW analyzer enable measurement, hence development, of these types of transmitters.The document focusses on devices for the 3.5 GHz NR (5G New Radio) candidate band, but its findings are equally applicable to developments and measurements for, for example, K-band satellite applications or mmW NR candidate bands, where efficiency is an even more crucial design target.
01-Aug-2017 | AN-No. 1MA289
Using R&S®ELEKTRA Migration Tool
The R&S®ELEKTRA EMC test software is the successor of the R&S®EMC32 EMC measurement software. Like the R&S®EMC32 EMC measurement software, the R&S®ELEKTRA offers a solution that controls complete EMC systems and automates measurements on equipment under test (EUT) that is being tested for emissions (EMI) and immunity (EMS) compliance. It has more features and test types compared to R&S®EMC32.As both software platforms use different file formats, R&S®EMC32 users who upgrade their existing software to the R&S®ELEKTRA platform need to perform a file conversion before migrating their data to the R&S®ELEKTRA platform. This is done by using the R&S®ELEKTRA Migration Tool, which is installed automatically with each R&S®ELEKTRA installation.This Application Note describes how to use the R&S®ELEKTRA Migration Tool (version 4.4 onwards) for converting the backup data into the XML format that can be interpreted by the R&S®ELEKTRA software. It also provides recommended conversion steps (Chapter 5) and troubleshooting tips (Chapter 6). For instructions on migrating the data using R&S®ELEKTRA Migration Tool below version 4.4, refer to the R&S®ELEKTRA user manual. For better user experience, we recommend using the latest software version for migration.This Application Note does not describe the steps to backup data using the R&S®EMC32 or R&S®ES-SCAN software. For procedures on how to do so, refer to their respective manuals.
04-May-2023 | AN-No. 1SL396
In general, most of the existing electronic devices are connected to the AC mains and require a power conversion stage to convert the AC-Voltage to a smaller DC-Voltage. Voltages and frequencies of the power grid differ between different regions. However, different types of AC-DC conversion stages exist to supply the electronic equipment with adequate DC-power.In AC-DC conversion combined with power levels less than 50W, the flyback converter is a commonplace chosen topology because of its simplicity and its low cost. The majority of consumer products make use of this converter type like wall brick power supplies or power adapters for any consumer application and other type of stand-by auxiliary power supply like used in white and brown goods. In AC to DC converter application, an electrical isolation between input and output is mandatory. The flyback topology provides this galvanic barrier.Beside the common advantages of a flyback converter, it has inherently parasitic components, which typically produce ringing waveforms with considerably high voltage spikes. Without suppressing this unwanted ringing, it may have some negative effect on other components like the switching elements. This ringing can also influence the EMI emissions adversely. Therefore, it is an important task to adequate suppress and damp the ringing effect. This damping circuit is known as snubber circuit and provides this functionality. In the flyback converter, different snubber structures can be applied and each of the structure has its advantage and disadvantage.The demand having a snubber circuit in the power supply topology leads to specific verification methods during the design to obtain a proper and reliable design. These verification methods are the main focus of the discussions within this document.
23-Jun-2021 | AN-No. 1SL363
This application Note is based on CMW500, SMBV100B and Vector CANoe.Car2x Software and guides to how to simulate the specific Cellular Vehicle-to-Everything (C-V2X) wireless environment in respect to road transport scenarios and transmitted messages around the Device Under Test (DUT) like a Telematics Control Unit (TCU). It shows how to verify and validate the C-V2X application of the DUT in laboratory environment. The virtual simulation scenario is not limited to the requirements of CSAE53-2017 specification, and it could be modified by user according to this operating guide with CANoe.Vehicle-to-everything (V2X) is a new generation of information and communications technologies that connect vehicles to everything. The objective of V2X is to increase road safety and manage traffic efficiently.C-V2X is designed to offer low-latency vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V), vehicle-to-roadside infrastructure (V2I) and vehicle-to-pedestrian (V2P) communications services to add a new dimension to future advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). C-V2X as one communications standard defined by 3GPP in Release 14 uses LTE technology as the physical interface for communications. The standard describes two types of communications. The vehicle-to-network (V2N) communications type, exploits the cellular Uu interface, uses traditional cellular link to enable cloud services to be integrated into end-to-end solutions, e.g. to allow road and traffic information for a given area to be distributed to the vehicles.The second type is referred to as direct or PC5/Sidelink (V2V, V2I, V2P) communications, where data transmission takes place over the PC5 interface. In that type, C-V2X does not necessarily require a cellular network infrastructure. It can operate without a SIM and without network assistance and uses GNSS as its primary source for time synchronization.Verifying system functionality and performance exclusively by field testing in a real-world environment can be time-consuming, costly and very challenging. Requirements regarding functionality, and consequently the required assistance functions, are constantly changing. Due to this fact, test solutions are needed during the development and introduction phase to verify compliance with the standards. The PC5 direct communications type allows exchange of time sensitive and safety relevant information. Using a mobile communication tester like the R&S® CMW500 together with a C-V2X scenario simulation tool delivers reproducible test scenarios. This is essential for the standardization of verification processes for C-V2X in order to obtain reliable and comparable results, and it helps to demonstrate that end-to-end functionality between two C-V2X devices from different vendors works properly.
02-Jun-2021 | AN-No. GFM341
A step by step HOW TO guide to perform manual and automated wireless coexistence testing
At the end of the year 2020, there were over 20 Billion internet of things (IoT) products in the world operating using the licensed and unlicensed frequency bands. This growth trend is projected to keep steady over the coming years as more and more people adopt to a smarter and more connected lifestyle. This will result in a much busier and challenging RF environment than the one we have today. In order to understand the complexity of the RF spectrum, a white paper was published in 2021 from Rohde & Schwarz, which featured RF spectrum activity at multiple locations observed at different times of the day. The locations were selected based on population densities and the amount of known RF transmitters & their frequencies at those locations. It was also concluded that the ISM bands on average have higher channel utilization since most IoT devices take advantage of the unlicensed spectrum. The paper recommended, that while performing wireless coexistence testing, the test conditions should reflect the operational RF environment that the device is intended to operate in. Otherwise, the characterization of RF performance would only reflect ideal case which doesn’t exist in real world operation. Since it is not always possible to test all devices in the real world, relevant test methodologies need to be setup to replicate the real world as much as possible.This will help us get a better understanding of how the receiver of the RF device will behave under different RF conditions. It is also recommended to perform measurements in order to understand the behavior of the device in the future when the spectrum will get even more challenging. Therefore, a through characterization of the capability of the RF receiver to handle in-band and out-of-band interference signals in also of interest.In terms of regulatory compliance requirements for ensuring wireless coexistence performance, the ANSI C63.27 is currently the only published test standard that provides guidance on how to perform coexistence testing on devices. The test complexity is based up on risk imposed on the user’s health in the event of a failure caused by an or a plurality of interference signal. The standard also gives device manufacturers guidance regarding test setups, measurement environments, interference signal types and strategy, performance quality measurement parameters for physical layer using key performance indicator (KPI) and application layer parameters for end-to-end functional wireless performance (FWP).In this application note, the guidance provided by the ANSI C63.27-2021 version regarding test setup, measurement parameter and interference signal have been followed. It will give the reader a clear idea on how to configure standardized test instruments from R&S in order to generate the wanted signal as well as unintended interference signals and conduct measurement to monitor device performance in terms of PER, ping latency and data throughput.This application note provides step-by-step instruction on how to perform measurements using conducted and radiated methodology. Both manual and automated instrument configuration approach is explained in this document.The automation scripts are written using python scripting language and are available for download with this application note, free of charge. Official required to run the scripts are available on the PYPI database.
10-Nov-2022 | AN-No. 1SL392